Micosis más prevalentes en pacientes con VIH/SIDA, correlación con el estado inmunológico del huésped
Palabras clave:
micosis, infecciones fúngicas, VIH, sidaResumen
Desde la aparición de la epidemia por el virus de la inmunodeficiencia humana (VIH), encontramos que los pacientes que padecen la infección por este virus o el síndrome de inmunodeficiencia adquirida (sida), presentan infecciones asociadas causadas por diferentes microorganismos como virus, bacterias, hongos, parásitos o micobacterias. Algunas de estas infecciones son propias de la población positiva para VIH, mientras que otras son comunes dentro de la comunidad, pero en los pacientes con VIH tienen presentaciones clínicas bizarras. Por lo tanto, estamos obligados a prestar atención a todas las posibles infecciones de las que son blanco estos pacientes, para poder hacer un diagnóstico oportuno y un tratamiento precoz.
Haremos una correlación de las infecciones micóticas más prevalentes en los pacientes que presentan VIH/sida con su estado inmunológico (conteo de linfocitos T CD4), sus principales características, las manifestaciones en las que difieren con los pacientes sin compromiso inmunológico y posibles complicaciones.
Biografía del autor/a
Juliana Calle
Residente de tercer año, Dermatología CES, Medellín, Colombia
Nora Cardona
M.D, MSc. Universidad CES, Instituto Colombiano de Medicina Tropical, Medellín, Colombia.
Referencias bibliográficas
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9. Hogan MT. Cutaneous infections associated with HIV/AIDS. Dermatol Clin. 2006;24:473-95.
10. Mylonakis E, Barlam TF, Flanigan T, Rich JD. Pulmonary aspergillosis and invasive disease in AIDS. Review of 342 cases. Chest. 1998;114:251-62.
11. Wu TC, Chan JWM, Ng CK, Tsang DNC, Lee MP, Li PCK. Clinical presentations and outcomes of Penicillium marneffei infections: a series from 1994 to 2004. Hong Kong Med J. 2008;14:103-9.
12. van Baarlen P, van Belkum A, Summerbell RC, Crous PW, Thomma BPHJ. Molecular mechanisms of pathogenicity: how do pathogenic microorganisms develop cross-kingdom host jumps? FEMS Microbiol Rev. 2007;31: 239-77.
13. Rigopoulus D, Paparizos V, Katsambas A. Cutaneous markers of HIV infection. Clin Dermatol. 2004;22:487-98.
14. Gupta AK, Bluhm R, Cooper EA, Summerbell RC, Batra R. Seborrheic dermatitis. Dermatol Clin. 2003;21:401-12.
15. Berger S, Stoner MF, Hobbs ER, Hayes TJ, Boswell RN. Cutaneous manifestations of early human immunodeficiency virus exposure. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1988;19:298-303.
16. Marino CT, McDonald E, Romano JF. Seborrheic dermatitis in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Cutis. 1991;50:217-8.
17. Plewig G, Jansen T. Seborrheic dermatitis. In: Wolff K, Goldsmith LA, Katz SI, Gilchrest BA, Paller AS, Leffell DJ. Fitzpatrick's Dermatology in general medicine. Seventh edition. 2007. New York, Mc Graw Hill, 219-25.
18. Soeprono FF, Schinella RA, Cockerell CJ, Comite SL. Seborrheic-like dermatitis of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: a clinicopathologic study. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1986;14:242-8.
19. Puig L, Fernández-Figueras T, Ferrandiz C, Ribera M, de Moragas JM. Epidermal expression of 65 and 72 kd heat shock proteins in psoriasis and AIDS-associated psoriasiform dermatitis. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1995;33:985-9.
20. Prose NS, Abson KG, Scher RK. Disorders of nails and hair associated with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Int J Dermatol. 1992:32;453-7.
21. Gupta AK, Taborda P, Taborda V, Gilmour J, Rachlis A, Salit I, et al. Epidemiology and prevalence of onychomychosis in HIV positive individuals. Int J Dermatol. 2000;39:746-53.
22. Herranz P, García J, De Lucas R, González J, Pena JM, Díaz R, et al. toenail onychomycosis in patients with acquired immune deficiency syndrome: treatment with terbinafine. Br J Dermatol. 1997;137:577-80.
23. Weismann K, Knudsen EA, Pedersen C. White nails in AIDS/ARC due to Trichophyton rubrum infection. Clin Exp Dermatol. 1988;13:24-5.
24. Surjushe A, Kamath R, Oberai C, Sapple D, Thakre M, Dharmshale S, et al. A clinical and mycological study of onychomychosis in HIV infection. Indian J Dermatol Leprol Veneorol. 2007;73:397-401.
25. Conant MA. The AIDS epidemic. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1994;31(Suppl.):S47-50.
26. Johnson RA. Dermatophyte infections in human immune deficiency virus (HIV) disease. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2000;43:S135-42.
27. Venkatesan P, Perfect JR, Myers SA. Evaluation and management of fungal infections in immunocompromised patients. Dermatol Ther. 2005;18:44-57.
28. Arribas JR, Hernández-Albujar S, González-García JJ, Pena JM, González A, Canedo T, et al. Impact of protease inhibitor therapy on HIV-related oropharyngeal candidiasis. AIDS. 2000;14:979-85.
29. de Repentigny L, Lewandowski D, Jolicoeur P. Immunopathogenesis of oropharyngeal candidiasis in human immunodeficiency virus infection. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2004: 14(4);729-59.
30. Barchiesi F, Arzeni D, Del Prete MS, Sinicco A, Falconi DF, Pasticci MB et al. Fluconazole susceptibility and strain variation of Candida albicans isolates from HIV-infected patients with oropharyngeal candidosis. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1998;41:541-8.
31. Wright SW, Johnson RA. Human immunodeficiency virus in women: mucocutaneous manifestations. Clin Dermatol. 1997;15:93-111.
32. EC-clearinghouse on oral problems related to HIV infection and WHO collaborating centre on oral manifestations of the immunodeficiency virus. Classification and diagnostic criteria for oral lesions in HIV infection. J Oral Pathol Med. 1993;22:289-91.
33. Ruhnke M. Mucosal and systemic fungal infections in patients with AIDS: prophylaxis and treatment. Drugs. 2004;64:1163-80.
34. Radentz WH. Opportunistic fungal infections in immunocompromised hosts. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1989;20:989-1003.
35. Thomas CF Jr, Limper AH. Pneumocystis pneumonia. N Engl J Med. 2004;350:2487-96.
36. Edman JC, Kovacs JA, Masur H, Santi DV, Elwood HJ, Sogin ML. Ribosomal RNA sequence shows Pneumocystis carinii to be a member of the fungi. Nature. 1988;334:519-22.
37. Morris A, Beard CB, Huang L. Update on the epidemiology and transmission of Pneumocystis carinii. Microbes Infect. 2002;4:95-103.
38. Pareja JG, Garland R, Koziel H. Use of adjunctive corticosteroids in severe adult non-HIV Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Chest. 1998;113:1215-24.
39. Yale SH, Limper AH. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients without acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: associated illness and prior corticosteroid therapy. Mayo Clin Proc. 1996;71:5-13.
40. Randall CJ, Yarnold PR, Schwartz DN, Weinstein RA, Bennett CL. Improvements in outcomes of acute respiratory failure for patients with human immunodeficiency virusrelated Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000;162:393-8.
41. Nahimana A, Rabodonirina M, Helweg-Larsen J, Meneau I, Fancioli P, Bille J et al. Sulfa resistance and dihydropteroate synthase mutants in recurrent Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Emerg Infect Dis. 2003;9:864-70.
42. Solari R, Corti M, Cangelosi D, Escudero M, Negroni R, Saccheri C, et al. Disseminated histoplasmosis with lesions restricted to the larynx in a patient with AIDS. Report of a case and review of the literature. Rev Iberoam Micol. 2007;24:164-6.
43. McKinsey DS, Spiegel RA, Hutwagner L, Stanford J, Drinks MR, Brewer J, et al. Prospective study of histoplasmosis in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus: incidence, risk factors, and pathophysiology. Clin Infect Dis. 1997;24:1195-203.
44. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Revision of the CDC surveillance case definition for the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1987;(RR-10):1-59.
45. Wheat LJ, Connolly-Stringfield PA, Baker RL, Curfman MF, Eads ME, Israel KS, et al. Disseminated histoplasmosis in the acquired immune deficiency syndrome: clinical findings, diagnosis and treatment, and review of the literature. Medicine (Baltimore). 1990;69:361.
46. Calza L, Manfredi R, Donzelli C, Marinacci G, Colangeli V, Chiodo F. Disseminated histoplasmosis with atypical cutaneous lesions in an Italian HIV-infected patient: another autochthonous case. HIV Med. 2003;4:145-8.
47. Subramanian S, Mathai D. Clinical manifestations and management of cryptococcal infection. J Postgrad Med. 2005;51(Suppl.1):S21-6.
48. Dromer F, Mathoulin S, Dupont B, Laporte A. Epidemiology of cryptococcosis in France: a 9-year survey (1985-1993). French Cryptococcosis Study Group. Clin Infect Dis. 1996;23:82-90.
49. Kaplan J, Hanson D, Dworkin MS, Frederick T, Bertolli J, Lindegren ML, et al. Epidemiology of human immunodeficiency virus–associated opportunistic infections in the United States in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2000; 30(Suppl.1):S5-14.
50. Kshirsagar NA, Kirodian BG. Liposomal drug delevery system from laboratory to patients: our experience. Proc Indian Natn Sci Acad. 2002;B68:333-48.
51. Brouwer AE, Rajanuwong A, Cheirakul W, Griffin GE, Larsen RA, White NJ, et al. Combination antifungal therapies for HIV-associated cryptococcal meningitis: a randomized trial. Lancet .2004;363:1764-7.
52. Saag MS, Graybill RJ, Larsen RA, Pappas PG, Perfect JR, Powderly WG, et al. Practice guidelines for the management of cryptococcal disease. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2000;30:710-8.
53. Palella FJ, Delaney K, Moorman A, Loveless MO, Fuhrer J, Satten GA, et al. Declining morbidity and mortality among patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection. N Engl J Med. 1998;338:853-60.
54. Chariyalertsak S, Sirisanthana T, Supparatpinyo K, Praparattanapan J, Nelson KE. Case-control study of risk factors for Penicillium marneffei infection in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients in northern Thailand. Clin Infect Dis. 1997;24:1080-6.
55. Sirisanthana T, Supparatpinyo K. Epidemiology and management of penicilliosis in human immunodeficiency virusinfected patients. Int J Infect Dis. 1998;3:48-53.
56. Sobottka I, Albrecht H, Mack D, Stellbrinck HJ, van Lunzen J, Tintelnot K, et al. Systemic Penicillium marneffi infection in a German AIDS patient. Eur J Clin Microbial Infect Dis. 1996;15:256-9.
57. Jones PD, See J. Penicillium marneffei infection in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus: late presentation in an area of nonendemicity [Letter]. Clin Infect Dis. 1992;15:744.
58. Viviani MA, Tortorano AM, Rizzardini G, Quirino T, Kaufman L, Padhye AA, et al. Treatment and serological studies of an Italian case of penicilliosis marneffei contracted in Thailand by a drug addict infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. Eur J Epidemiol. 1993;9:79-85.
59. Sirisanthana T. Penicillium marneffei infection in patients with AIDS. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7:561.
60. Li PC, Tsui MC, Ma KF. Penicillium marneffei: indicator disease for AIDS in South East Asia. AIDS 1992;6:240-1.
61. Lee N. Penicilliosis: an AIDS-defining disease in Asia. Hong Kong Med J. 2008;14:88-9.
62. Hung CC, Chen MY, Hsieh SM, Sheng WH, Hsiao CF, Chang SC, et al. Discontinuation of secondary prophylaxis for Penicillinosis marneffei in AIDS patients responding to highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS. 2002;16:672-3.
63. Rivas AM, Cardona NM. Antimicóticos de uso sistémico: ¿con que opciones terapéuticas contamos? Rev CES Med. 2009;23:61-76.
64. Johnson LB, Kauffman CA. Voriconazole. A new triazole antifungal agent. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;36:630-7.
65. Herbrecht R, Denning DW, Patterson TF, Bennett JE, Green RE, Oestmann JW, et al. Voriconazol versus amphotericin B for primary therapy of invasive aspergillosis. N Engl J Med. 2002;347:408-15.
66. Ally R, Schurmann D, Kreisel W, Carosi G, Aquirreboengoa K, Dupont B, et al. A randomized, double-blind, doubledummy, multicenter trial of voriconazole and fluconazole in the treatment of esophageal candidiasis in immunocompromised patients. Clin Infect Dis. 2001;33:1447-54.
67. Cornely OA, Maertens J, Winston DJ, Perfect J, Ullmann AJ, Walsh TJ, et al. Posaconazole Vs. fluconazole or itraconazole prophylaxis in patients with neutropenia. N Engl J Med. 2007;356:348-59.
68. Skiest DJ, Vázquez JA, Anstead GM, Graybill JR, Reynes J, Ward D, et al. Posaconazole for the treatment of azole refractoryoropharyngeal and esophageal candidiasis in subjects with HIV infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44:607-14.
69. Mora-Duarte J, Betts R, Rotstein C, Colombo AL, ThompsonMoya L, Smietana J, et al. Comparison of caspofungin and amphotericin B for invasive candidiasis. N Engl J Med. 2002;347:2020-9.
2. Sharma SK, Hadhiravan T. Management of the patient with HIV infection In: Rakel RE, Bope ET, editors. Conn’s Current Therapy 2008. Piladelphia: Saunders Elsevier; 2008. p. 47-61.
3. Nnoruka EN, Chukwuka JC, Anisuiba BN. Correlation of mucocutaneous manifestations of HIV/AIDS infection with CD4 counts and disease progression. Int J Dermatol. 2007;46(Suppl.2):14-8.
4. Aly R, Berguer T. Common superficial fungal infections in patients with AIDS. Clin Infect Dis. 1996;22(Suppl.2):S128-32.
5. Conant MA. Fungal infections in immunocompromised individuals. Dermatol Clin. 1996;14:155-62.
6. Karp CL, Auwaerter PG. Coinfection with HIV and tropical infectious diseases. II. Helminthic, fungal, bacterial, and viral pathogens. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45:1214-20.
7. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Guidelines for Prevention and Treatment of Opportunistic Infections in HIV-Infected Adults and Adolescents Recommendations from CDC, the National Institutes of Health, and the HIV Medicine Association of the Infectious Diseases Society of America MMWR 2009;58 (No. RR-4). Atlanta, 2009.
8. Hajjeh RA, Pappas PG, Henderson H, Lancaster D, Bamberger DM, Skahan KJ, et al. Multicenter case-control study of risk factors for histoplasmosis in human immunodeficiency virus–infected persons. Clin Infect Dis. 2001;32:1215-20.
9. Hogan MT. Cutaneous infections associated with HIV/AIDS. Dermatol Clin. 2006;24:473-95.
10. Mylonakis E, Barlam TF, Flanigan T, Rich JD. Pulmonary aspergillosis and invasive disease in AIDS. Review of 342 cases. Chest. 1998;114:251-62.
11. Wu TC, Chan JWM, Ng CK, Tsang DNC, Lee MP, Li PCK. Clinical presentations and outcomes of Penicillium marneffei infections: a series from 1994 to 2004. Hong Kong Med J. 2008;14:103-9.
12. van Baarlen P, van Belkum A, Summerbell RC, Crous PW, Thomma BPHJ. Molecular mechanisms of pathogenicity: how do pathogenic microorganisms develop cross-kingdom host jumps? FEMS Microbiol Rev. 2007;31: 239-77.
13. Rigopoulus D, Paparizos V, Katsambas A. Cutaneous markers of HIV infection. Clin Dermatol. 2004;22:487-98.
14. Gupta AK, Bluhm R, Cooper EA, Summerbell RC, Batra R. Seborrheic dermatitis. Dermatol Clin. 2003;21:401-12.
15. Berger S, Stoner MF, Hobbs ER, Hayes TJ, Boswell RN. Cutaneous manifestations of early human immunodeficiency virus exposure. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1988;19:298-303.
16. Marino CT, McDonald E, Romano JF. Seborrheic dermatitis in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Cutis. 1991;50:217-8.
17. Plewig G, Jansen T. Seborrheic dermatitis. In: Wolff K, Goldsmith LA, Katz SI, Gilchrest BA, Paller AS, Leffell DJ. Fitzpatrick's Dermatology in general medicine. Seventh edition. 2007. New York, Mc Graw Hill, 219-25.
18. Soeprono FF, Schinella RA, Cockerell CJ, Comite SL. Seborrheic-like dermatitis of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: a clinicopathologic study. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1986;14:242-8.
19. Puig L, Fernández-Figueras T, Ferrandiz C, Ribera M, de Moragas JM. Epidermal expression of 65 and 72 kd heat shock proteins in psoriasis and AIDS-associated psoriasiform dermatitis. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1995;33:985-9.
20. Prose NS, Abson KG, Scher RK. Disorders of nails and hair associated with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Int J Dermatol. 1992:32;453-7.
21. Gupta AK, Taborda P, Taborda V, Gilmour J, Rachlis A, Salit I, et al. Epidemiology and prevalence of onychomychosis in HIV positive individuals. Int J Dermatol. 2000;39:746-53.
22. Herranz P, García J, De Lucas R, González J, Pena JM, Díaz R, et al. toenail onychomycosis in patients with acquired immune deficiency syndrome: treatment with terbinafine. Br J Dermatol. 1997;137:577-80.
23. Weismann K, Knudsen EA, Pedersen C. White nails in AIDS/ARC due to Trichophyton rubrum infection. Clin Exp Dermatol. 1988;13:24-5.
24. Surjushe A, Kamath R, Oberai C, Sapple D, Thakre M, Dharmshale S, et al. A clinical and mycological study of onychomychosis in HIV infection. Indian J Dermatol Leprol Veneorol. 2007;73:397-401.
25. Conant MA. The AIDS epidemic. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1994;31(Suppl.):S47-50.
26. Johnson RA. Dermatophyte infections in human immune deficiency virus (HIV) disease. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2000;43:S135-42.
27. Venkatesan P, Perfect JR, Myers SA. Evaluation and management of fungal infections in immunocompromised patients. Dermatol Ther. 2005;18:44-57.
28. Arribas JR, Hernández-Albujar S, González-García JJ, Pena JM, González A, Canedo T, et al. Impact of protease inhibitor therapy on HIV-related oropharyngeal candidiasis. AIDS. 2000;14:979-85.
29. de Repentigny L, Lewandowski D, Jolicoeur P. Immunopathogenesis of oropharyngeal candidiasis in human immunodeficiency virus infection. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2004: 14(4);729-59.
30. Barchiesi F, Arzeni D, Del Prete MS, Sinicco A, Falconi DF, Pasticci MB et al. Fluconazole susceptibility and strain variation of Candida albicans isolates from HIV-infected patients with oropharyngeal candidosis. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1998;41:541-8.
31. Wright SW, Johnson RA. Human immunodeficiency virus in women: mucocutaneous manifestations. Clin Dermatol. 1997;15:93-111.
32. EC-clearinghouse on oral problems related to HIV infection and WHO collaborating centre on oral manifestations of the immunodeficiency virus. Classification and diagnostic criteria for oral lesions in HIV infection. J Oral Pathol Med. 1993;22:289-91.
33. Ruhnke M. Mucosal and systemic fungal infections in patients with AIDS: prophylaxis and treatment. Drugs. 2004;64:1163-80.
34. Radentz WH. Opportunistic fungal infections in immunocompromised hosts. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1989;20:989-1003.
35. Thomas CF Jr, Limper AH. Pneumocystis pneumonia. N Engl J Med. 2004;350:2487-96.
36. Edman JC, Kovacs JA, Masur H, Santi DV, Elwood HJ, Sogin ML. Ribosomal RNA sequence shows Pneumocystis carinii to be a member of the fungi. Nature. 1988;334:519-22.
37. Morris A, Beard CB, Huang L. Update on the epidemiology and transmission of Pneumocystis carinii. Microbes Infect. 2002;4:95-103.
38. Pareja JG, Garland R, Koziel H. Use of adjunctive corticosteroids in severe adult non-HIV Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Chest. 1998;113:1215-24.
39. Yale SH, Limper AH. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients without acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: associated illness and prior corticosteroid therapy. Mayo Clin Proc. 1996;71:5-13.
40. Randall CJ, Yarnold PR, Schwartz DN, Weinstein RA, Bennett CL. Improvements in outcomes of acute respiratory failure for patients with human immunodeficiency virusrelated Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000;162:393-8.
41. Nahimana A, Rabodonirina M, Helweg-Larsen J, Meneau I, Fancioli P, Bille J et al. Sulfa resistance and dihydropteroate synthase mutants in recurrent Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Emerg Infect Dis. 2003;9:864-70.
42. Solari R, Corti M, Cangelosi D, Escudero M, Negroni R, Saccheri C, et al. Disseminated histoplasmosis with lesions restricted to the larynx in a patient with AIDS. Report of a case and review of the literature. Rev Iberoam Micol. 2007;24:164-6.
43. McKinsey DS, Spiegel RA, Hutwagner L, Stanford J, Drinks MR, Brewer J, et al. Prospective study of histoplasmosis in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus: incidence, risk factors, and pathophysiology. Clin Infect Dis. 1997;24:1195-203.
44. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Revision of the CDC surveillance case definition for the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1987;(RR-10):1-59.
45. Wheat LJ, Connolly-Stringfield PA, Baker RL, Curfman MF, Eads ME, Israel KS, et al. Disseminated histoplasmosis in the acquired immune deficiency syndrome: clinical findings, diagnosis and treatment, and review of the literature. Medicine (Baltimore). 1990;69:361.
46. Calza L, Manfredi R, Donzelli C, Marinacci G, Colangeli V, Chiodo F. Disseminated histoplasmosis with atypical cutaneous lesions in an Italian HIV-infected patient: another autochthonous case. HIV Med. 2003;4:145-8.
47. Subramanian S, Mathai D. Clinical manifestations and management of cryptococcal infection. J Postgrad Med. 2005;51(Suppl.1):S21-6.
48. Dromer F, Mathoulin S, Dupont B, Laporte A. Epidemiology of cryptococcosis in France: a 9-year survey (1985-1993). French Cryptococcosis Study Group. Clin Infect Dis. 1996;23:82-90.
49. Kaplan J, Hanson D, Dworkin MS, Frederick T, Bertolli J, Lindegren ML, et al. Epidemiology of human immunodeficiency virus–associated opportunistic infections in the United States in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2000; 30(Suppl.1):S5-14.
50. Kshirsagar NA, Kirodian BG. Liposomal drug delevery system from laboratory to patients: our experience. Proc Indian Natn Sci Acad. 2002;B68:333-48.
51. Brouwer AE, Rajanuwong A, Cheirakul W, Griffin GE, Larsen RA, White NJ, et al. Combination antifungal therapies for HIV-associated cryptococcal meningitis: a randomized trial. Lancet .2004;363:1764-7.
52. Saag MS, Graybill RJ, Larsen RA, Pappas PG, Perfect JR, Powderly WG, et al. Practice guidelines for the management of cryptococcal disease. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2000;30:710-8.
53. Palella FJ, Delaney K, Moorman A, Loveless MO, Fuhrer J, Satten GA, et al. Declining morbidity and mortality among patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection. N Engl J Med. 1998;338:853-60.
54. Chariyalertsak S, Sirisanthana T, Supparatpinyo K, Praparattanapan J, Nelson KE. Case-control study of risk factors for Penicillium marneffei infection in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients in northern Thailand. Clin Infect Dis. 1997;24:1080-6.
55. Sirisanthana T, Supparatpinyo K. Epidemiology and management of penicilliosis in human immunodeficiency virusinfected patients. Int J Infect Dis. 1998;3:48-53.
56. Sobottka I, Albrecht H, Mack D, Stellbrinck HJ, van Lunzen J, Tintelnot K, et al. Systemic Penicillium marneffi infection in a German AIDS patient. Eur J Clin Microbial Infect Dis. 1996;15:256-9.
57. Jones PD, See J. Penicillium marneffei infection in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus: late presentation in an area of nonendemicity [Letter]. Clin Infect Dis. 1992;15:744.
58. Viviani MA, Tortorano AM, Rizzardini G, Quirino T, Kaufman L, Padhye AA, et al. Treatment and serological studies of an Italian case of penicilliosis marneffei contracted in Thailand by a drug addict infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. Eur J Epidemiol. 1993;9:79-85.
59. Sirisanthana T. Penicillium marneffei infection in patients with AIDS. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7:561.
60. Li PC, Tsui MC, Ma KF. Penicillium marneffei: indicator disease for AIDS in South East Asia. AIDS 1992;6:240-1.
61. Lee N. Penicilliosis: an AIDS-defining disease in Asia. Hong Kong Med J. 2008;14:88-9.
62. Hung CC, Chen MY, Hsieh SM, Sheng WH, Hsiao CF, Chang SC, et al. Discontinuation of secondary prophylaxis for Penicillinosis marneffei in AIDS patients responding to highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS. 2002;16:672-3.
63. Rivas AM, Cardona NM. Antimicóticos de uso sistémico: ¿con que opciones terapéuticas contamos? Rev CES Med. 2009;23:61-76.
64. Johnson LB, Kauffman CA. Voriconazole. A new triazole antifungal agent. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;36:630-7.
65. Herbrecht R, Denning DW, Patterson TF, Bennett JE, Green RE, Oestmann JW, et al. Voriconazol versus amphotericin B for primary therapy of invasive aspergillosis. N Engl J Med. 2002;347:408-15.
66. Ally R, Schurmann D, Kreisel W, Carosi G, Aquirreboengoa K, Dupont B, et al. A randomized, double-blind, doubledummy, multicenter trial of voriconazole and fluconazole in the treatment of esophageal candidiasis in immunocompromised patients. Clin Infect Dis. 2001;33:1447-54.
67. Cornely OA, Maertens J, Winston DJ, Perfect J, Ullmann AJ, Walsh TJ, et al. Posaconazole Vs. fluconazole or itraconazole prophylaxis in patients with neutropenia. N Engl J Med. 2007;356:348-59.
68. Skiest DJ, Vázquez JA, Anstead GM, Graybill JR, Reynes J, Ward D, et al. Posaconazole for the treatment of azole refractoryoropharyngeal and esophageal candidiasis in subjects with HIV infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44:607-14.
69. Mora-Duarte J, Betts R, Rotstein C, Colombo AL, ThompsonMoya L, Smietana J, et al. Comparison of caspofungin and amphotericin B for invasive candidiasis. N Engl J Med. 2002;347:2020-9.
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1.
Calle J, Cardona N. Micosis más prevalentes en pacientes con VIH/SIDA, correlación con el estado inmunológico del huésped. rev. asoc. colomb. dermatol. cir. dematol. [Internet]. 13 de febrero de 2019 [citado 20 de abril de 2024];17(4):211-20. Disponible en: https://revista.asocolderma.org.co/index.php/asocolderma/article/view/174
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2019-02-13
Cómo citar
1.
Calle J, Cardona N. Micosis más prevalentes en pacientes con VIH/SIDA, correlación con el estado inmunológico del huésped. rev. asoc. colomb. dermatol. cir. dematol. [Internet]. 13 de febrero de 2019 [citado 20 de abril de 2024];17(4):211-20. Disponible en: https://revista.asocolderma.org.co/index.php/asocolderma/article/view/174
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