Mycological diagnosis: From direct smear to molecular methods
Keywords:
Culture media, mycoses, laboratory techniques and procedures, polymerase chain reactionAbstract
Fungal infections have assumed an increasingly important role in current clinical practice. The keys to diagnosis is not only a correct history and physical examination, but also conventional diagnostic methods, but this may be difficult, due to the scanty number of microorganisms in the lesions and the slow growth of some of them.
Therefore, important progress is being made, resulting in a rapid and specific identification of etiological agents through molecular an serological detection of fungal antigens and antibodies; some of these methods are being implemented in our country, thus, the objective of this review wad to describe not only the conventional methods, but all those techniques that facilitate early diagnosis of fungal infections.
Author Biographies
Andrea Arango
Médica, residente, tercer año de Dermatología, Universidad CES, Sabaneta, Colombia
Natalí Moreno
Bacterióloga, candidata a M.Sc. en Microbiología y Bioanálisis, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín, Colombia
References
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2. Alexander B. Diagnosis of fungal infection: New technologies for the mycology laboratory. Transpl Infect Dis. 2002;4:32-7.
3. Czaika VA, Friedrich M. Epidemiological trends in skin mycoses worldwide. Mycoses. 2008;51:2-15.
4. Rousselle P, Freydiere A, Couillerot P, de Montclos H, Gille Y. Rapid identification of Candida albicans by using Albicans ID and fluoroplate agar plates. J Clin Microbiol. 1994;32:3034-6.
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8. Pemán J, Mazuelos E, Rubio MC. Guía práctica de identificación y diagnóstico en micología clínica. Rev Iberoam Micol. 2001;4:37-46.
9. Rúgeles MJ, Vásquez JL, Jaramillo E. Etiología y características clínicas de la onicomicosis en un grupo de pacientes inmunosuprimidos. Infectio. 2001;5:7-13.
10. Miranda MF, Silva AJ. New uses of vinyl tape for reliable collection and diagnosis of common superficial mycoses. Skin Med. 2003;2:156-8.
11. Moore MK, Howell SA, Duncan G, Cunningham MJ, Midgley G. A comparison of bright field and fluorescent microscopy in onichomycosis. Rev Iberoam Micol. 2000;17:S131.
12. Gadea I, Cuenca Estrella M. Recomendaciones para el diagnóstico micológico y estudios de sensibilidad a los antifúngicos. Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin. 2004;22:32-9.
13. Pontón J. Diagnóstico microbiológico de las Micosis. Rev Iberoam Micol. 2002;19:25-9.
14. Lilly KK, Koshnick RL, Grill JP, Khalil ZM, Nelson DB, Warshaw EM. Cost-effectiveness of diagnostic tests for toenail onychomycosis: A repeated-measure, single-blinded, cross-sectional evaluation of 7 diagnostic tests. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2006;55:620-6.
15. Rober R, Pihet M. Conventional methods for the diagnosis of dermatophytosis. Mycopathologia. 2008;166:295-306.
16. Monod M, Baudraz Rosselet F, Ramelet AA, Frenk E. Direct mycological examination in dermatology: A comparison of different methods. Dermatologica. 1989;179:183-6.
17. Adelrahman T, LetscherBru V, Waller J, Noacco G, Candolfi E. Dermatomycosis: Comparison of the performance of calcofluor and potassium hydroxide 30% for the direct examination of skin scrapings and nails. J Mycol Med. 2006;16:87-91.
18. Mayayo E. Diagnóstico histopatológico de las micosis. Rev Iberoam Micol. 2004;21:1-9.
19. Brun S, Bouchara JP, Bocquel A, Basile AM, Contet-Audonneau N, Chabasse D. Evaluation of five commercial Sabouraud gentamicin-chloramphenicol agar media. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2001;20:718-23.
20. McKinnell JA, Pappas PG. Blastomycosis: New insights into diagnosis, prevention, and treatment. Clin Chest Med. 2009;30:227-39.
21. Weitzman I, Summerbell RC. The dermatophytes. Clin Microbiol Rev. 1995;8:240-59.
22. Labarca JA, Wagar EA, Grasmick AE, Kokkinos HM, Bruckner DA. Critical evaluation of 4-week incubation for fungal cultures: Is the fourth week useful? J Clin Microbiol. 1998;36:3683-5.
23. Koksal F, Er E, Samasti M. Causative agents of superficial mycoses in Istanbul, Turkey: Retrospective study. Mycopathol. 2009;168:117-23.
24. Campbell CK, Holmes AD, Davey KG, Szekely A, Warnock DW. Comparison of a new chromogenic agar with the germ tube method for presumptive identification of Candida albicans. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 1998;17:367-8.
25. Staib P, Morschhäuser J. Chlamydospore formation in Candida albicans and Candida dubliniensis an enigmatic developmental programme. Mycoses. 2007;50:1-12.
26. Sheppard DC, Locas MC, Restieri C, Laverdiere M. Utility of the germ tube test for direct identification of Candida albicans from positive blood culture bottles. J Clin Microbiol. 2008;46:3508-9.
27. Cooke VM, Miles RJ, Price RG, Midgley G, Khamri W, Richardson AC. New chromogenic agar medium for the identification of Candida spp. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002;68:3622-7.
28. Eraso E, Moragues MD, Villar-Vidal M, Sahand IH, González N, Pontón J, et al. Evaluation of the new chromogenic medium Candida ID 2 for isolation and identification of Candida albicans and other medically important Candida species. J Clin Microbiol.
2006;44:3340-5.
29. Gomes C, Fidel S, Fidel R, De Moura Sarquis MI. Isolation and taxonomy of filamentous fungi in endodontic infections. J Endod. 2010;36:626-9.
30. Wright BE. Endogenous activity and sporulation in slime molds. Ann NY Acad Sci. 1963;102:740-54.
31. Blanco JL, García ME. Presente y futuro del diagnóstico inmunológico de las micosis animales. Rev Iberoam Micol. 2000;17:S23-8.
32. Mollerach M. Genómica y proteómica: oportunidades y desafíos para la microbiología. Rev Argent Microbiol. 2006;38:1-3.
33. Garaizar J, Brena S, Bikandi J, Rementeria A, Pontón J. Use of DNA microarray technology and gene expression profiles to investigate the pathogenesis, cell biology, antifungal susceptibility and diagnosis of Candida albicans. FEMS Yeast Res. 2006;6:987-98.
34. Hofmann G, McIntyre M, Nielsen J. Fungal genomics beyond Saccharomyces cerevisiae? Curr Opin Biotechnol. 2003;14:226-31.
35. Hay RJ, Jones RM. New molecular tools in the diagnosis of superficial fungal infections. Clin Dermatol. 2010;28:190-6.
36. Álvarez S, García ME, Blanco JL. Diagnóstico micológico: algo está cambiando. Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin. 2008;26:638-46.
37. Yeo SF, Wong B. Current status of nonculture methods for diagnosis of invasive fungal infections. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2002;15:465-84.
38. Blanz P, Buzina W, Ginter G, Graser Y. Molecular biological methods and their consequences in taxonomy and diagnosis of dermatophytes. Mycoses. 2000;43:11-6.
39. Seringhaus M, Paccanaro A, Borneman A, Snyder M, Gerstein M. Predicting essential genes in fungal genomes. Genome Res. 2006;16:1126-35.
40. Machouart-Dubach M, Lacroix C, de Chauvin MF, Le Gall I, Giudicelli C, Lorenzo F, et al. Rapid discrimination among dermatophytes, Scytalidium spp. and other fungi with a PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism ribotyping method. J Clin Microbiol. 2001;39:685-90.
41. Xiang H, Xiong L, Liu X, Tu Z. Rapid simultaneous detection and identification of six species of Candida using polymerase chain reaction and reverse line hybridization assay. J Microbiol Meth. 2007;69:282-7.
42. Arca E, Saracli MA, Akar A, Yildiran ST, Kurumlu Z, Gur AR. Polymerase chain reaction in the diagnosis of onychomycosis. Eur J Dermatol. 2004;14:52-5.
43. De Backer MD, Ilyina T, Ma XJ, Vandoninck S, Luyten WHML, Vanden Bossche H. Genomic profiling of the response of Candida albicans to itraconazole treatment using a DNA microarray. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2001;45:1660-70.
44. Leinberger DM, Schumacher U, Autenrieth IB, Bachmann TT. Development of a DNA microarray for detection and identification of fungal pathogens involved in invasive mycoses. J Clin Microbiol. 2005;43:4943-53.
45. Harmsen D, Schwinn A, Brocker EB, Frosch M. Molecular differentiation of dermatophyte fungi. Mycoses. 1999;42:67-70.
46. Doménech-Sánchez A, Vila J. Fundamento, tipos y aplicaciones de los arrays de ADN en la microbiología médica. Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin. 2004;22:46-54.
47. Manso M, Montillo G, De Sio S, D’Amico G, Discepoli R. Value of antigen and antibody detection in the serological diagnosis of invasive aspergiliosis in patients with hematological malignancies. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 1994;13:756-60.
48. Warnock DW, Foot ABM, Johnson EM, Mitchell SB, Cornish JM, Oakhill A. Aspergillus antigen latex test for diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis. Lancet. 1991;338:1023-4.
49. Stynen D, Meulemans L, Garrigues ML. Aspergillus antigen latex test for diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis. Lancet. 1992;339:188.
50. Pontón J. Diagnóstico microbiológico de las micosis. Rev Iber Micol. 2007;24:181-6.
51. Ellepola A, Morrison C. Laboratory diagnosis of invasive candidiasis. J Microbiol. 2005;43:65-84.
52. Seebacher C, Bouchara JP, Mignon B. Updates on the epidemiology of dermatophyte infections. Mycopathologia. 2008;166:335-52.
53. Hamilton AJ. Serodiagnosis of histoplasmosis, paracoccidioidomycosis and Penicilliosis marneffei: Current status and future trends. Med Mycol. 1998;36:351-64.
2. Alexander B. Diagnosis of fungal infection: New technologies for the mycology laboratory. Transpl Infect Dis. 2002;4:32-7.
3. Czaika VA, Friedrich M. Epidemiological trends in skin mycoses worldwide. Mycoses. 2008;51:2-15.
4. Rousselle P, Freydiere A, Couillerot P, de Montclos H, Gille Y. Rapid identification of Candida albicans by using Albicans ID and fluoroplate agar plates. J Clin Microbiol. 1994;32:3034-6.
5. Rezusta LA, Sánchez SA, Gil TK. Fundamentos básicos para el diagnóstico micológico. Rev Iberoam Micol. 2001;3:1-17.
6. Kaufman L. Laboratory methods for the diagnosis and confirmation of systemic mycoses. Clin Infect Dis. 1992;1:S23-9.
7. Garzón R, Carballo M, Muñoz E, Cipitteli L. La importancia de la preparación del paciente en el examen micológico de laboratorio. Rev Iberoam Micol. 1998;15:307-8.
8. Pemán J, Mazuelos E, Rubio MC. Guía práctica de identificación y diagnóstico en micología clínica. Rev Iberoam Micol. 2001;4:37-46.
9. Rúgeles MJ, Vásquez JL, Jaramillo E. Etiología y características clínicas de la onicomicosis en un grupo de pacientes inmunosuprimidos. Infectio. 2001;5:7-13.
10. Miranda MF, Silva AJ. New uses of vinyl tape for reliable collection and diagnosis of common superficial mycoses. Skin Med. 2003;2:156-8.
11. Moore MK, Howell SA, Duncan G, Cunningham MJ, Midgley G. A comparison of bright field and fluorescent microscopy in onichomycosis. Rev Iberoam Micol. 2000;17:S131.
12. Gadea I, Cuenca Estrella M. Recomendaciones para el diagnóstico micológico y estudios de sensibilidad a los antifúngicos. Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin. 2004;22:32-9.
13. Pontón J. Diagnóstico microbiológico de las Micosis. Rev Iberoam Micol. 2002;19:25-9.
14. Lilly KK, Koshnick RL, Grill JP, Khalil ZM, Nelson DB, Warshaw EM. Cost-effectiveness of diagnostic tests for toenail onychomycosis: A repeated-measure, single-blinded, cross-sectional evaluation of 7 diagnostic tests. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2006;55:620-6.
15. Rober R, Pihet M. Conventional methods for the diagnosis of dermatophytosis. Mycopathologia. 2008;166:295-306.
16. Monod M, Baudraz Rosselet F, Ramelet AA, Frenk E. Direct mycological examination in dermatology: A comparison of different methods. Dermatologica. 1989;179:183-6.
17. Adelrahman T, LetscherBru V, Waller J, Noacco G, Candolfi E. Dermatomycosis: Comparison of the performance of calcofluor and potassium hydroxide 30% for the direct examination of skin scrapings and nails. J Mycol Med. 2006;16:87-91.
18. Mayayo E. Diagnóstico histopatológico de las micosis. Rev Iberoam Micol. 2004;21:1-9.
19. Brun S, Bouchara JP, Bocquel A, Basile AM, Contet-Audonneau N, Chabasse D. Evaluation of five commercial Sabouraud gentamicin-chloramphenicol agar media. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2001;20:718-23.
20. McKinnell JA, Pappas PG. Blastomycosis: New insights into diagnosis, prevention, and treatment. Clin Chest Med. 2009;30:227-39.
21. Weitzman I, Summerbell RC. The dermatophytes. Clin Microbiol Rev. 1995;8:240-59.
22. Labarca JA, Wagar EA, Grasmick AE, Kokkinos HM, Bruckner DA. Critical evaluation of 4-week incubation for fungal cultures: Is the fourth week useful? J Clin Microbiol. 1998;36:3683-5.
23. Koksal F, Er E, Samasti M. Causative agents of superficial mycoses in Istanbul, Turkey: Retrospective study. Mycopathol. 2009;168:117-23.
24. Campbell CK, Holmes AD, Davey KG, Szekely A, Warnock DW. Comparison of a new chromogenic agar with the germ tube method for presumptive identification of Candida albicans. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 1998;17:367-8.
25. Staib P, Morschhäuser J. Chlamydospore formation in Candida albicans and Candida dubliniensis an enigmatic developmental programme. Mycoses. 2007;50:1-12.
26. Sheppard DC, Locas MC, Restieri C, Laverdiere M. Utility of the germ tube test for direct identification of Candida albicans from positive blood culture bottles. J Clin Microbiol. 2008;46:3508-9.
27. Cooke VM, Miles RJ, Price RG, Midgley G, Khamri W, Richardson AC. New chromogenic agar medium for the identification of Candida spp. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002;68:3622-7.
28. Eraso E, Moragues MD, Villar-Vidal M, Sahand IH, González N, Pontón J, et al. Evaluation of the new chromogenic medium Candida ID 2 for isolation and identification of Candida albicans and other medically important Candida species. J Clin Microbiol.
2006;44:3340-5.
29. Gomes C, Fidel S, Fidel R, De Moura Sarquis MI. Isolation and taxonomy of filamentous fungi in endodontic infections. J Endod. 2010;36:626-9.
30. Wright BE. Endogenous activity and sporulation in slime molds. Ann NY Acad Sci. 1963;102:740-54.
31. Blanco JL, García ME. Presente y futuro del diagnóstico inmunológico de las micosis animales. Rev Iberoam Micol. 2000;17:S23-8.
32. Mollerach M. Genómica y proteómica: oportunidades y desafíos para la microbiología. Rev Argent Microbiol. 2006;38:1-3.
33. Garaizar J, Brena S, Bikandi J, Rementeria A, Pontón J. Use of DNA microarray technology and gene expression profiles to investigate the pathogenesis, cell biology, antifungal susceptibility and diagnosis of Candida albicans. FEMS Yeast Res. 2006;6:987-98.
34. Hofmann G, McIntyre M, Nielsen J. Fungal genomics beyond Saccharomyces cerevisiae? Curr Opin Biotechnol. 2003;14:226-31.
35. Hay RJ, Jones RM. New molecular tools in the diagnosis of superficial fungal infections. Clin Dermatol. 2010;28:190-6.
36. Álvarez S, García ME, Blanco JL. Diagnóstico micológico: algo está cambiando. Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin. 2008;26:638-46.
37. Yeo SF, Wong B. Current status of nonculture methods for diagnosis of invasive fungal infections. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2002;15:465-84.
38. Blanz P, Buzina W, Ginter G, Graser Y. Molecular biological methods and their consequences in taxonomy and diagnosis of dermatophytes. Mycoses. 2000;43:11-6.
39. Seringhaus M, Paccanaro A, Borneman A, Snyder M, Gerstein M. Predicting essential genes in fungal genomes. Genome Res. 2006;16:1126-35.
40. Machouart-Dubach M, Lacroix C, de Chauvin MF, Le Gall I, Giudicelli C, Lorenzo F, et al. Rapid discrimination among dermatophytes, Scytalidium spp. and other fungi with a PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism ribotyping method. J Clin Microbiol. 2001;39:685-90.
41. Xiang H, Xiong L, Liu X, Tu Z. Rapid simultaneous detection and identification of six species of Candida using polymerase chain reaction and reverse line hybridization assay. J Microbiol Meth. 2007;69:282-7.
42. Arca E, Saracli MA, Akar A, Yildiran ST, Kurumlu Z, Gur AR. Polymerase chain reaction in the diagnosis of onychomycosis. Eur J Dermatol. 2004;14:52-5.
43. De Backer MD, Ilyina T, Ma XJ, Vandoninck S, Luyten WHML, Vanden Bossche H. Genomic profiling of the response of Candida albicans to itraconazole treatment using a DNA microarray. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2001;45:1660-70.
44. Leinberger DM, Schumacher U, Autenrieth IB, Bachmann TT. Development of a DNA microarray for detection and identification of fungal pathogens involved in invasive mycoses. J Clin Microbiol. 2005;43:4943-53.
45. Harmsen D, Schwinn A, Brocker EB, Frosch M. Molecular differentiation of dermatophyte fungi. Mycoses. 1999;42:67-70.
46. Doménech-Sánchez A, Vila J. Fundamento, tipos y aplicaciones de los arrays de ADN en la microbiología médica. Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin. 2004;22:46-54.
47. Manso M, Montillo G, De Sio S, D’Amico G, Discepoli R. Value of antigen and antibody detection in the serological diagnosis of invasive aspergiliosis in patients with hematological malignancies. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 1994;13:756-60.
48. Warnock DW, Foot ABM, Johnson EM, Mitchell SB, Cornish JM, Oakhill A. Aspergillus antigen latex test for diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis. Lancet. 1991;338:1023-4.
49. Stynen D, Meulemans L, Garrigues ML. Aspergillus antigen latex test for diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis. Lancet. 1992;339:188.
50. Pontón J. Diagnóstico microbiológico de las micosis. Rev Iber Micol. 2007;24:181-6.
51. Ellepola A, Morrison C. Laboratory diagnosis of invasive candidiasis. J Microbiol. 2005;43:65-84.
52. Seebacher C, Bouchara JP, Mignon B. Updates on the epidemiology of dermatophyte infections. Mycopathologia. 2008;166:335-52.
53. Hamilton AJ. Serodiagnosis of histoplasmosis, paracoccidioidomycosis and Penicilliosis marneffei: Current status and future trends. Med Mycol. 1998;36:351-64.
How to Cite
1.
Arango A, Moreno N. Mycological diagnosis: From direct smear to molecular methods. rev. asoc. colomb. dermatol. cir. dematol. [Internet]. 2019 Feb. 18 [cited 2024 Jul. 3];20(1):76-82. Available from: https://revista.asocolderma.org.co/index.php/asocolderma/article/view/211
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2019-02-18
How to Cite
1.
Arango A, Moreno N. Mycological diagnosis: From direct smear to molecular methods. rev. asoc. colomb. dermatol. cir. dematol. [Internet]. 2019 Feb. 18 [cited 2024 Jul. 3];20(1):76-82. Available from: https://revista.asocolderma.org.co/index.php/asocolderma/article/view/211
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