Epidermal barrier in atopic dermatitis.
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.29176/2590843X.136Keywords:
Epidermal Barrier, Atopic Dermatitis, FilaggrinAbstract
The epidermal barrier interfacing the environment, serves as a physical barrier that is crucial for physiological homeostasis. One of its most important function is the protection of invasion harmful organisms and the skin permeability. A balance is required between structural and biochemical integrity for endogenous and exogenous influences, that are potential harmful. Furthermore there are determinanted genetics and acquired conditions in molecular composition and in properties of this epidermal barrier. Dermatitis atopica (DA), a chronic inflammatory dermatosis, genetically complex, and with a strong environmental component, has been extensively studied like a model disease of disruption of the skin barrier. Characterized by increased epidermal proliferation and disturbed differentiation, including changes in lipid composition, in keratins and structural proteins expression like filaggrin, with an important role in the cornified envelope conformation and in skin humectation.
This review focuses on the epidermal barrier function, alterations finding in DA, disturbed immune barrier, antimicrobial barrier and the influence of genetics and environmental factors in this pathology.
Author Biography
Florinda María Busi
Residente de cuarto año de Dermatología, Universidad del Valle.
References
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2. Shwayder T, Akland T. Neonatal skin barrier: structure, function, and disorders. Dermatol Ther. 2005;18: 87-103.
3. Bouwstra JA, Ponec M. The skin barrier in healthy and diseased state. Biochim Biophys. 2006; Acta 1758: 2080-95.
4. EhProksch E, Fölster-Holst R, Jensen JM. Skin barrier function, epidermal proliferation and differentiation in eczema. J Dermatol Sci. 2006; 43: 159-69.
5. McGrath J, Uitto J. The filaggrin story: novel insights into skin-barrier function and disease.Trends Mol Med. 2008; 14:20-7.
6. Marekov LN, Steinert PM. Ceramides are bound to structural proteins of the human foreskin epidermal cornified cell envelope. J Biol Chem. 1998;273:17763-70.
7. Robson KJ, Stewart ME, Michelsen S, Lazo ND, Downing DT. 6-Hydroxy-4-sphingenine in human epidermal ceramides. J Lipid Res. 1994;35: 2060-8.
8. Ogawa H, Yoshiike TJ. A speculative view of atopic dermatitis: barrier dysfunction in pathogenesis. Dermatol Sci. 1993; 5:197-204.
9. Van Gool CJ, Zeegers MP, Thijs C. Oral essential fatty acid supplementation in atopic dermatitis-a meta-analysis of placebo-controlled trials. Br J Dermatol. 2004;150 :728-40.
10. Uitto J, Richard G, McGrath JA. Diseases of epidermal keratins and their linker proteins. Exp Cell Res 2007; 313:1995-2009.
11. Candi E, Schmidt R, Melino G. The cornified envelope: a model of cell death in the skin. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 2005; 6: 328-40.
12. Presland R, Rothnagal J, Lawrence O. Profilaggrin and the fused S100 family of calcium-binding proteins.En: Elias PM, Feingold K, editors. Skin barrier. New York: Taylor & Francis; 2006. p. 111-40.
13. Scott IR, Harding CR. Filaggrin breakdown to water binding compounds during development of the rat stratum corneum is controlled by the water activity of the environment. Dev Biol. 1986;115:84-92.
14. Denecker G, Hoste E, Gilbert B, Hochepied T, Ovaere P, Lippens S. Caspase-14 protects against epidermal UVB photodamage and water loss. Nat Cell Biol. 2007;9: 666-74.
15. Nicotera P, Melino G. Caspase-14 and epidermis maturation. Nat Cell Biol 2007; 9: 621–2.
16. Gan SQ, McBride OW, Idler WW, Markova N, Steinert PM.Organization, structure, and polymorphisms of the human profilaggrin gene. Biochemistry 1990;29: 9432-40.
17. Fleckman P, Brumbaugh S. Absence of the granular layer and keratohyalin define a morphologically distinct subset of individuals with ichthyosis vulgaris. Exp Dermatol 2002;11:327-36.
18. Compton JG, DiGiovanna JJ, Johnston KA, Fleckman P, Bale SJ. Mapping of the associated phenotype of an absent granular layer in ichthyosis vulgaris to the epidermal differentiation complex on chromosome 1. Exp Dermatol 2002; 11:518-26.
19. Zhong W, Cui B, Zhang Y, Jiang H, Wei S, Bu L. Linkage analysis suggests a locus of ichthyosis vulgaris on 1q22. J Hum Genet 2003; 48: 390-2.
20. Ginger RS, Blachford S, Rowland J, Rowson M, Harding CR. Filaggrin repeat number polymorphism is associated with a dry skin phenotype. Arch Dermatol Res 2005; 297: 235-41.
21. Smith FJ, Irvine AD, Terron-Kwiatkowski A, Sandilands A, Campbell LE, Zhao Y. Loss-of-function mutations in the gene encoding filaggrin cause ichthyosis vulgaris. Nat Genet 2006; 38:337-42.
22. Sandilands A, O'Regan GM, Liao H, Zhao Y, Terron-Kwiatkowski A, Watson RM. Prevalent and rare mutations in the gene encoding filaggrin cause ichthyosis vulgaris and predispose individuals to atopic dermatitis. J Invest Dermatol 2006; 126: 1770-5.
23. Seguchi T, Cui CY, Kusuda S, Takahashi M, Aisu K, Tezuka T. Decreased expression of filaggrin in atopic skin. Arch Dermatol Res 1996;288; 442-6.
24. Palmer CN, Irvine AD, Terron-Kwiatkowski A, Zhao Y, Liao H, Lee SP. Common loss-of-function variants of the epidermal barrier protein filaggrin are a major predisposing factor for atopic dermatitis. Nat Genet 2006;38: 441-6.
25. Sandilands A, Terron-Kwiatkowski A, Hull PR, O'Regan GM, Clayton TH, Watson RM. Comprehensive analysis of the gene encoding filaggrin uncovers prevalent and rare mutations in ichthyosis vulgaris and atopic eczema. Nat Genet 2007;39: 650-4.
26. Barker JN, Palmer CN, Zhao Y, Liao H, Hull PR, Lee SP. Null mutations in the filaggrin gene (FLG) determine major susceptibility to early-onset atopic dermatitis that persists into adulthood. J Invest Dermatol 2007;127:564-7.
27. Stemmler S, Parwez Q, Petrasch-Parwez E, Epplen JT, Hoffjan S. Two common loss-of-function mutations within the filaggrin gene predispose for early onset of atopic dermatitis. J Invest Dermatol 2007;127:722-4.
28. Weidinger S, Rodriguez E, Stahl C, Wagenpfeil S, Klopp N, Illig T. Filaggrin mutations strongly predispose to early-onset and extrinsic atopic dermatitis. J Invest Dermatol 2007;127:724-6.
29. Irvine AD. Fleshing out filaggrin phenotype. J Invest Dermatol 2007;127: 504-7.
30. Nomura T, Sandilands A, Akiyama M, Liao H, Evans AT, Sakai K. Unique mutations in the filaggrin gene in Japanese patients with ichthyosis vulgaris and atopic dermatitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2007; 119: 434-40.
31. Gruber R, Janecke AR, Fauth C, Utermann G, Fritsch PO, Schmuth M. Filaggrin mutations p.R501X and c.2282del4 in ichthyosis vulgaris. Eur J Hum Genet 2007; 15:179-84.
32. Nomura T, Akiyama M, Sandilands A, Nemoto-Hasebe I, Sakai K, Nagasaki A. Specific filaggrin mutations cause ichthyosis vulgaris and are significantly associated with atopic dermatitis in Japanese patients. J Invest Dermatol 2008 Jun;128(6):1436-41.
33. Howell D, Eui Kim B, Gao P, Grant A, Boguniewicz M, DeBenedetto A. Cytokine modulation of atopic dermatitis filaggrin skin expression. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2007;120:150-5.
34. Irvine AD, McLean WH. Breaking the (un)sound barrier: filaggrin is a major gene for atopic dermatitis. J Invest Dermatol 2006; 126; 1200-2.
35. Marenholz I, Nickel R, Schendorf F, Schulz F, Esparza J, Kerscher T. Filaggrin loss-of-function mutations predispose to phenotypes involved in the atopic march. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2006;118:866-71.
36. Palmer CN, Ismail T, Lee SP, Terron-Kwiatkowski A, Zhao Y, Liao H . Filaggrin null mutations are associated with increased asthma severity in children and young adults. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2007; 120: 64-8.
37. McLean WH, Hull PR. Breach delivery: increased solute uptake points to a defective skin barrier in atopic dermatitis. J Invest Dermatol 2007;127: 8-10.
38. Ying S, Meng Q, Corrigan CJ, Lee TH. Lack of filaggrin expression in the human bronchial mucosa. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2006;118: 1386-8.
39. Weidinger S, Illig T, Baurecht H, Irvine AD, Rodriguez E, Diaz-Lacava A. Loss-of-function variations within the filaggrin gene predispose for atopic dermatitis with allergic sensitizations. J Allergy Clin. Immunol 2006; 118: 214-9.
40. Zhao Y, Terron- Kwiatkowski A, Liao H, Lee SP, Allen MH, Hull P. Filaggrin null alleles are not associated with psoriasis. J Invest Dermatol 2007; 127; 1878-82.
41. Weichenthal M, Ruether A, Schreiber S, Nair R. Filaggrin R501X and 2282del4 mutations are not associated with chronic plaque-type psoriasis in a German cohort. J Invest Dermatol. 2007;127:1535-7.
42. Hüffmeier U, Traupe H, Oji V, Lascorz J, Ständer M, Lohmann J. Loss-of-function variants of the filaggrin gene are not major susceptibility factors for psoriasis vulgaris or psoriatic arthritis in German patients. J Invest Dermatol 2007; 127:1367-70.
43. Betz RC, Pforr J, Flaquer A, Redler S, Hanneken S, Eigelshoven S. Loss-of-function mutations in the filaggrin gene and alopecia areata: strong risk factor for a severe course of disease in patients comorbid for atopic disease. J Invest Dermatol 2007; 127: 2539-43.
44. Liao H, Waters AJ, Goudie DR, Aitken DA, Graham G, Smith FJ. Filaggrin mutations are genetic modifying factors exacerbating X-linked ichthyosis. J Invest. Dermatol 2007; 127:2795-8.
45. Sevilla L, Nachat R, Groot K, Klement J, Uitto J, Djian P. Mice deficient in involucrin, envoplakin, and periplakin have a defective epidermal barrier. The Journal of Cell Biology 2007; 179:1599-612.
46. Ong PY, Ohtake T, Brandt C, Strickland I, Boguniewicz M, Ganz T. Endogenous antimicrobial peptides and skin infections in atopic dermatitis. N Engl J Med. 2002;347:1151-60.
47. De Jongh GJ, Zeeuwen PL, Kucharekova M, Pfundt R, van der Valk PG, Blokx W. High expression levels of keratinocyte antimicrobial proteins in psoriasis compared with atopic dermatitis. J Invest Dermatol 2005;125 :1163-73.
48. Altemus M, Rao B, Dhabhar FS, Ding W, Granstein RD. Stress induced changes in skin barrier function in healthy women. J Invest Dermatol 2001;117:309-17.
49. Baker BS. The role of microorganisms in atopic dermatitis. Clin Exp Immunol 2006;144:1-9.
50. Elias P, Hatano Y, Williams ML. Basis for the barrier abnormality in atopic dermatitis: Outside-inside-outside pathogenic mechanisms. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2008 (Article in press).
51. Taieb A. Hypothesis: from epidermal barrier dysfunction to atopic disorders. Contact Dermatitis 1999;41:177-80.
52. Boguniewicz M, Schmid-Grendelmeier P, Leung DY. Atopic dermatitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2006;118:40-3.
53. Howell M, Wollenberg A, Gallo R, Flaig M, Streib JE, Wong C. Cathelicidin deficiency predisposes to eczema herpeticum. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2006;117:836-41.
54. Ramirez de Knott HM, McCormick TS, Kalka K, Skandamis G, Ghannoum MA, Schluchter M. Cutaneous hypersensitivity to Malassezia sympodialis and dust mite in adult atopic dermatitis with a textile pattern. Contact Dermatitis 2006;54:92-9.
55. Uehara M, Hayashi S. Hyperlinear palms: association with ichthyosis and atopic dermatitis. Arch Dermatol 1981;117:490-1.
56. Mevorah B, Marazzi A, Frenk E. The prevalence of accentuated palmoplantar markings and keratosis in atopic dermatitis, autosomal dominant ichthyosis and control dermatological patients. Br J Dermatol 1983;112:679-85.
57. Ochs HD. The Wiskott—Aldrich syndrome. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol 2001;20:61-86.
58. Hachem JP, Wagberg F, Schmuth M, Crumrine D, Lissens W, Jayakumar A. Serine protease activity and residual LEKTI expression determine phenotype in netherton syndrome. J Invest Dermatol 2006;109:326-33.
59. Cookson W. The immunogenetics of asthma and eczema: a new focus on the epithelium. Nat Rev Immunol 2004; 4 978-88.
60. Ghadially R, Halkier-Sorensen L, Elias PM. Effects of petrolatum on stratum corneum structure and function. J Am Acad Dermatol 1992;26:387-96.
61. Loden M, Andersson AC, Lindberg M. Improvement in skin barrier function in patients with atopic dermatitis after treatment with a moisturizing cream (Canoderm). Br J Dermatol 1999;140:264-7.
62. Tabata N, O’Goshi K, Zhen YX, Kligman AM, Tagami H. Biophysical assessment of persistent effects of moisturizers after their daily applications: evaluation of corneotherapy. Dermatology 2000;200:308-13.
63. Chamlin SL, Frieden IJ, Fowler A, Williams M, Kao J, Sheu M. Ceramide-dominant, barrier repair lipids improve childhood atopic dermatitis. Arch Dermatol 2001;137:1110-2.
64. Berardesca E, Barbareschi M, Veraldi S, Pimpinelli N. Evaluation of efficacy of a skin lipid mixture in patients with irritant contact dermatitis, allergic contact dermatitis or atopic dermatitis: a multicenter study. Contact Dermatitis 2001;45:280-5.
2. Shwayder T, Akland T. Neonatal skin barrier: structure, function, and disorders. Dermatol Ther. 2005;18: 87-103.
3. Bouwstra JA, Ponec M. The skin barrier in healthy and diseased state. Biochim Biophys. 2006; Acta 1758: 2080-95.
4. EhProksch E, Fölster-Holst R, Jensen JM. Skin barrier function, epidermal proliferation and differentiation in eczema. J Dermatol Sci. 2006; 43: 159-69.
5. McGrath J, Uitto J. The filaggrin story: novel insights into skin-barrier function and disease.Trends Mol Med. 2008; 14:20-7.
6. Marekov LN, Steinert PM. Ceramides are bound to structural proteins of the human foreskin epidermal cornified cell envelope. J Biol Chem. 1998;273:17763-70.
7. Robson KJ, Stewart ME, Michelsen S, Lazo ND, Downing DT. 6-Hydroxy-4-sphingenine in human epidermal ceramides. J Lipid Res. 1994;35: 2060-8.
8. Ogawa H, Yoshiike TJ. A speculative view of atopic dermatitis: barrier dysfunction in pathogenesis. Dermatol Sci. 1993; 5:197-204.
9. Van Gool CJ, Zeegers MP, Thijs C. Oral essential fatty acid supplementation in atopic dermatitis-a meta-analysis of placebo-controlled trials. Br J Dermatol. 2004;150 :728-40.
10. Uitto J, Richard G, McGrath JA. Diseases of epidermal keratins and their linker proteins. Exp Cell Res 2007; 313:1995-2009.
11. Candi E, Schmidt R, Melino G. The cornified envelope: a model of cell death in the skin. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 2005; 6: 328-40.
12. Presland R, Rothnagal J, Lawrence O. Profilaggrin and the fused S100 family of calcium-binding proteins.En: Elias PM, Feingold K, editors. Skin barrier. New York: Taylor & Francis; 2006. p. 111-40.
13. Scott IR, Harding CR. Filaggrin breakdown to water binding compounds during development of the rat stratum corneum is controlled by the water activity of the environment. Dev Biol. 1986;115:84-92.
14. Denecker G, Hoste E, Gilbert B, Hochepied T, Ovaere P, Lippens S. Caspase-14 protects against epidermal UVB photodamage and water loss. Nat Cell Biol. 2007;9: 666-74.
15. Nicotera P, Melino G. Caspase-14 and epidermis maturation. Nat Cell Biol 2007; 9: 621–2.
16. Gan SQ, McBride OW, Idler WW, Markova N, Steinert PM.Organization, structure, and polymorphisms of the human profilaggrin gene. Biochemistry 1990;29: 9432-40.
17. Fleckman P, Brumbaugh S. Absence of the granular layer and keratohyalin define a morphologically distinct subset of individuals with ichthyosis vulgaris. Exp Dermatol 2002;11:327-36.
18. Compton JG, DiGiovanna JJ, Johnston KA, Fleckman P, Bale SJ. Mapping of the associated phenotype of an absent granular layer in ichthyosis vulgaris to the epidermal differentiation complex on chromosome 1. Exp Dermatol 2002; 11:518-26.
19. Zhong W, Cui B, Zhang Y, Jiang H, Wei S, Bu L. Linkage analysis suggests a locus of ichthyosis vulgaris on 1q22. J Hum Genet 2003; 48: 390-2.
20. Ginger RS, Blachford S, Rowland J, Rowson M, Harding CR. Filaggrin repeat number polymorphism is associated with a dry skin phenotype. Arch Dermatol Res 2005; 297: 235-41.
21. Smith FJ, Irvine AD, Terron-Kwiatkowski A, Sandilands A, Campbell LE, Zhao Y. Loss-of-function mutations in the gene encoding filaggrin cause ichthyosis vulgaris. Nat Genet 2006; 38:337-42.
22. Sandilands A, O'Regan GM, Liao H, Zhao Y, Terron-Kwiatkowski A, Watson RM. Prevalent and rare mutations in the gene encoding filaggrin cause ichthyosis vulgaris and predispose individuals to atopic dermatitis. J Invest Dermatol 2006; 126: 1770-5.
23. Seguchi T, Cui CY, Kusuda S, Takahashi M, Aisu K, Tezuka T. Decreased expression of filaggrin in atopic skin. Arch Dermatol Res 1996;288; 442-6.
24. Palmer CN, Irvine AD, Terron-Kwiatkowski A, Zhao Y, Liao H, Lee SP. Common loss-of-function variants of the epidermal barrier protein filaggrin are a major predisposing factor for atopic dermatitis. Nat Genet 2006;38: 441-6.
25. Sandilands A, Terron-Kwiatkowski A, Hull PR, O'Regan GM, Clayton TH, Watson RM. Comprehensive analysis of the gene encoding filaggrin uncovers prevalent and rare mutations in ichthyosis vulgaris and atopic eczema. Nat Genet 2007;39: 650-4.
26. Barker JN, Palmer CN, Zhao Y, Liao H, Hull PR, Lee SP. Null mutations in the filaggrin gene (FLG) determine major susceptibility to early-onset atopic dermatitis that persists into adulthood. J Invest Dermatol 2007;127:564-7.
27. Stemmler S, Parwez Q, Petrasch-Parwez E, Epplen JT, Hoffjan S. Two common loss-of-function mutations within the filaggrin gene predispose for early onset of atopic dermatitis. J Invest Dermatol 2007;127:722-4.
28. Weidinger S, Rodriguez E, Stahl C, Wagenpfeil S, Klopp N, Illig T. Filaggrin mutations strongly predispose to early-onset and extrinsic atopic dermatitis. J Invest Dermatol 2007;127:724-6.
29. Irvine AD. Fleshing out filaggrin phenotype. J Invest Dermatol 2007;127: 504-7.
30. Nomura T, Sandilands A, Akiyama M, Liao H, Evans AT, Sakai K. Unique mutations in the filaggrin gene in Japanese patients with ichthyosis vulgaris and atopic dermatitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2007; 119: 434-40.
31. Gruber R, Janecke AR, Fauth C, Utermann G, Fritsch PO, Schmuth M. Filaggrin mutations p.R501X and c.2282del4 in ichthyosis vulgaris. Eur J Hum Genet 2007; 15:179-84.
32. Nomura T, Akiyama M, Sandilands A, Nemoto-Hasebe I, Sakai K, Nagasaki A. Specific filaggrin mutations cause ichthyosis vulgaris and are significantly associated with atopic dermatitis in Japanese patients. J Invest Dermatol 2008 Jun;128(6):1436-41.
33. Howell D, Eui Kim B, Gao P, Grant A, Boguniewicz M, DeBenedetto A. Cytokine modulation of atopic dermatitis filaggrin skin expression. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2007;120:150-5.
34. Irvine AD, McLean WH. Breaking the (un)sound barrier: filaggrin is a major gene for atopic dermatitis. J Invest Dermatol 2006; 126; 1200-2.
35. Marenholz I, Nickel R, Schendorf F, Schulz F, Esparza J, Kerscher T. Filaggrin loss-of-function mutations predispose to phenotypes involved in the atopic march. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2006;118:866-71.
36. Palmer CN, Ismail T, Lee SP, Terron-Kwiatkowski A, Zhao Y, Liao H . Filaggrin null mutations are associated with increased asthma severity in children and young adults. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2007; 120: 64-8.
37. McLean WH, Hull PR. Breach delivery: increased solute uptake points to a defective skin barrier in atopic dermatitis. J Invest Dermatol 2007;127: 8-10.
38. Ying S, Meng Q, Corrigan CJ, Lee TH. Lack of filaggrin expression in the human bronchial mucosa. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2006;118: 1386-8.
39. Weidinger S, Illig T, Baurecht H, Irvine AD, Rodriguez E, Diaz-Lacava A. Loss-of-function variations within the filaggrin gene predispose for atopic dermatitis with allergic sensitizations. J Allergy Clin. Immunol 2006; 118: 214-9.
40. Zhao Y, Terron- Kwiatkowski A, Liao H, Lee SP, Allen MH, Hull P. Filaggrin null alleles are not associated with psoriasis. J Invest Dermatol 2007; 127; 1878-82.
41. Weichenthal M, Ruether A, Schreiber S, Nair R. Filaggrin R501X and 2282del4 mutations are not associated with chronic plaque-type psoriasis in a German cohort. J Invest Dermatol. 2007;127:1535-7.
42. Hüffmeier U, Traupe H, Oji V, Lascorz J, Ständer M, Lohmann J. Loss-of-function variants of the filaggrin gene are not major susceptibility factors for psoriasis vulgaris or psoriatic arthritis in German patients. J Invest Dermatol 2007; 127:1367-70.
43. Betz RC, Pforr J, Flaquer A, Redler S, Hanneken S, Eigelshoven S. Loss-of-function mutations in the filaggrin gene and alopecia areata: strong risk factor for a severe course of disease in patients comorbid for atopic disease. J Invest Dermatol 2007; 127: 2539-43.
44. Liao H, Waters AJ, Goudie DR, Aitken DA, Graham G, Smith FJ. Filaggrin mutations are genetic modifying factors exacerbating X-linked ichthyosis. J Invest. Dermatol 2007; 127:2795-8.
45. Sevilla L, Nachat R, Groot K, Klement J, Uitto J, Djian P. Mice deficient in involucrin, envoplakin, and periplakin have a defective epidermal barrier. The Journal of Cell Biology 2007; 179:1599-612.
46. Ong PY, Ohtake T, Brandt C, Strickland I, Boguniewicz M, Ganz T. Endogenous antimicrobial peptides and skin infections in atopic dermatitis. N Engl J Med. 2002;347:1151-60.
47. De Jongh GJ, Zeeuwen PL, Kucharekova M, Pfundt R, van der Valk PG, Blokx W. High expression levels of keratinocyte antimicrobial proteins in psoriasis compared with atopic dermatitis. J Invest Dermatol 2005;125 :1163-73.
48. Altemus M, Rao B, Dhabhar FS, Ding W, Granstein RD. Stress induced changes in skin barrier function in healthy women. J Invest Dermatol 2001;117:309-17.
49. Baker BS. The role of microorganisms in atopic dermatitis. Clin Exp Immunol 2006;144:1-9.
50. Elias P, Hatano Y, Williams ML. Basis for the barrier abnormality in atopic dermatitis: Outside-inside-outside pathogenic mechanisms. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2008 (Article in press).
51. Taieb A. Hypothesis: from epidermal barrier dysfunction to atopic disorders. Contact Dermatitis 1999;41:177-80.
52. Boguniewicz M, Schmid-Grendelmeier P, Leung DY. Atopic dermatitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2006;118:40-3.
53. Howell M, Wollenberg A, Gallo R, Flaig M, Streib JE, Wong C. Cathelicidin deficiency predisposes to eczema herpeticum. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2006;117:836-41.
54. Ramirez de Knott HM, McCormick TS, Kalka K, Skandamis G, Ghannoum MA, Schluchter M. Cutaneous hypersensitivity to Malassezia sympodialis and dust mite in adult atopic dermatitis with a textile pattern. Contact Dermatitis 2006;54:92-9.
55. Uehara M, Hayashi S. Hyperlinear palms: association with ichthyosis and atopic dermatitis. Arch Dermatol 1981;117:490-1.
56. Mevorah B, Marazzi A, Frenk E. The prevalence of accentuated palmoplantar markings and keratosis in atopic dermatitis, autosomal dominant ichthyosis and control dermatological patients. Br J Dermatol 1983;112:679-85.
57. Ochs HD. The Wiskott—Aldrich syndrome. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol 2001;20:61-86.
58. Hachem JP, Wagberg F, Schmuth M, Crumrine D, Lissens W, Jayakumar A. Serine protease activity and residual LEKTI expression determine phenotype in netherton syndrome. J Invest Dermatol 2006;109:326-33.
59. Cookson W. The immunogenetics of asthma and eczema: a new focus on the epithelium. Nat Rev Immunol 2004; 4 978-88.
60. Ghadially R, Halkier-Sorensen L, Elias PM. Effects of petrolatum on stratum corneum structure and function. J Am Acad Dermatol 1992;26:387-96.
61. Loden M, Andersson AC, Lindberg M. Improvement in skin barrier function in patients with atopic dermatitis after treatment with a moisturizing cream (Canoderm). Br J Dermatol 1999;140:264-7.
62. Tabata N, O’Goshi K, Zhen YX, Kligman AM, Tagami H. Biophysical assessment of persistent effects of moisturizers after their daily applications: evaluation of corneotherapy. Dermatology 2000;200:308-13.
63. Chamlin SL, Frieden IJ, Fowler A, Williams M, Kao J, Sheu M. Ceramide-dominant, barrier repair lipids improve childhood atopic dermatitis. Arch Dermatol 2001;137:1110-2.
64. Berardesca E, Barbareschi M, Veraldi S, Pimpinelli N. Evaluation of efficacy of a skin lipid mixture in patients with irritant contact dermatitis, allergic contact dermatitis or atopic dermatitis: a multicenter study. Contact Dermatitis 2001;45:280-5.
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Busi FM. Epidermal barrier in atopic dermatitis. rev. asoc. colomb. dermatol. cir. dematol. [Internet]. 2008 Dec. 1 [cited 2024 Jul. 22];16(4):293-301. Available from: https://revista.asocolderma.org.co/index.php/asocolderma/article/view/136
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How to Cite
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Busi FM. Epidermal barrier in atopic dermatitis. rev. asoc. colomb. dermatol. cir. dematol. [Internet]. 2008 Dec. 1 [cited 2024 Jul. 22];16(4):293-301. Available from: https://revista.asocolderma.org.co/index.php/asocolderma/article/view/136
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